The process of connecting the grounding system to earth is called earthing and consists of immersing a metal electrode or system of electrodes into the earth. The conductor that connects the grounding system to earth is called the grounding electrode conductor. The function of the grounding electrode conductor is to keep the entire grounding system at earth potential (i.e., voltage equalization during lightning and other transients) rather than for conducting ground-fault current. Therefore, the NEC allows reduced sizing requirements for the grounding electrode conductor when connected to made electrodes.
The basic measure of effectiveness of an earth electrode system is called earth electrode resistance. Earth electrode resistance is the resistance, in ohms, between the point of connection and a distant point on the earth called remote earth. Remote earth, about 25 ft from the driven electrode, is the point where earth electrode resistance does not increase appreciably when this distance is increased. Earth electrode resistance consists of the sum of the resistance of the metal electrode (negligible) plus the contact resistance between the electrode and the soil (negligible) plus the soil resistance itself. Thus, for all practical purposes, earth electrode resistance equals the soil resistance. The soil resistance is nonlinear, with most of the earth resistance contained within several feet of the electrode. Furthermore, current flows only through the electrolyte portion of the soil, not the soil itself. Thus, soil resistance varies as the electrolyte content (moisture and salts) of the soil varies. Without electrolyte, soil resistance would be infinite.
Soil resistance is a function of soil resistivity. A 1-cubic-meter sample of soil with a resistivity of 1 ohm-meter will present a resistance of 1 ohm between opposite faces. A broad variation of soil resistivity occurs as a function of soil types, and soil resistivity can be estimated or measured directly. Soil resistivity is usually measured by injecting a known current into a given volume of soil and measuring the resulting voltage drop. When soil resistivity is known, the earth electrode resistance of any given configuration (single rod, multiple rods, or ground ring) can be determined by using standard equations developed by Sunde, Schwarz, and others.
Earth resistance values should be as low as practicable, but are a function of the application. The NEC approves the use of a single made electrode if the earth resistance does not exceed 25Ω. IEEE Standard 1100 reports that the very low earth resistance values specified for computer systems in the past are not necessary. Methods of reducing earth resistance values include the use of multiple electrodes in parallel, the use of ground rings, increased ground rod lengths, installation of ground rods to the permanent water level, increased area of coverage of ground rings, and the use of concrete-encased electrodes, ground wells, and electrolytic electrodes.
The basic measure of effectiveness of an earth electrode system is called earth electrode resistance. Earth electrode resistance is the resistance, in ohms, between the point of connection and a distant point on the earth called remote earth. Remote earth, about 25 ft from the driven electrode, is the point where earth electrode resistance does not increase appreciably when this distance is increased. Earth electrode resistance consists of the sum of the resistance of the metal electrode (negligible) plus the contact resistance between the electrode and the soil (negligible) plus the soil resistance itself. Thus, for all practical purposes, earth electrode resistance equals the soil resistance. The soil resistance is nonlinear, with most of the earth resistance contained within several feet of the electrode. Furthermore, current flows only through the electrolyte portion of the soil, not the soil itself. Thus, soil resistance varies as the electrolyte content (moisture and salts) of the soil varies. Without electrolyte, soil resistance would be infinite.
Soil resistance is a function of soil resistivity. A 1-cubic-meter sample of soil with a resistivity of 1 ohm-meter will present a resistance of 1 ohm between opposite faces. A broad variation of soil resistivity occurs as a function of soil types, and soil resistivity can be estimated or measured directly. Soil resistivity is usually measured by injecting a known current into a given volume of soil and measuring the resulting voltage drop. When soil resistivity is known, the earth electrode resistance of any given configuration (single rod, multiple rods, or ground ring) can be determined by using standard equations developed by Sunde, Schwarz, and others.
Earth resistance values should be as low as practicable, but are a function of the application. The NEC approves the use of a single made electrode if the earth resistance does not exceed 25Ω. IEEE Standard 1100 reports that the very low earth resistance values specified for computer systems in the past are not necessary. Methods of reducing earth resistance values include the use of multiple electrodes in parallel, the use of ground rings, increased ground rod lengths, installation of ground rods to the permanent water level, increased area of coverage of ground rings, and the use of concrete-encased electrodes, ground wells, and electrolytic electrodes.
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